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Immunity / Immune Disorders | | Description |
Immunity is the body's defense against foreign substances. Its major function is to combat infectious microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and parasites) but it also protects against drugs, toxins, and cancer cells. Immunity is partly non-specific since it does not depend on previous exposure to the foreign substance. For example, microorganisms are engulfed and inactivated by polymorphonuclear leucocytes as a first line of defense before specific immunity has developed. Acquired immunity depends on specific recognition of the foreign substance and is the usual outcome of natural infection or prophylactic immunization. Foreign substances which provoke an immune response are termed 'antigens'. These are usually proteins but smaller molecules such as drugs and chemicals can also induce an immune response. Proteins are taken up and processed by specialized cells called 'antigen presenting cells', strategically sited where microbial infection may enter the body. The complex protein molecules are broken down into short amino-acid chains (peptides) and transported to the cell surface where they are presented by structures called HLA antigens. These antigens are the human form of histocompatibility antigens which confer individuality on the cells of most mammalian species.
Foreign peptides presented by Human Leucocyte Antigen (HLA) molecules are recognized by cells called T lymphocytes. These originate in the bone marrow and migrate to the thymus where they are educated to distinguish between foreign peptides which elicit a primary immune response and self-antigens which do not. Non-responsiveness to self-antigens is termed 'tolerance' Each population or clone of T cells is uniquely responsive to a single peptide sequence because it expresses a surface molecule ('receptor') which fits only that peptide. The responsive T cell clone induces a specific response in other T and B lymphocyte populations. Cytotoxic T cells penetrate infected tissues and kill cells which express peptides derived from invading microorganisms, thereby helping to eliminate the infection.
B lymphocytes secrete antibodies which are collectively termed gamma-globulins or immunoglobulins (1g). Each B cell population (clone) secretes antibody uniquely specific for antigens encountered in the blood, extracellular space, and the lumen of organs such as the respiratory passages and gastrointestinal tract. Antibodies belong to different Ig classes; IgM antibodies are initially synthesized followed by smaller and therefore more penetrative IgG molecules. IgA antibodies are adapted to cross the surfaces of mucosal tissues so that they can adhere to organisms in the gut, upper and lower respiratory passages, thereby preventing their attachment to the mucosal surface. IgE antibodies also contribute to mucosal defense but are implicated in many allergic reactions.
Antibodies are composed of constant portions, which distinguish antibodies of different class, and variable portions, which confer unique antigen-binding properties on the product of each B cell clone. In order to match the vast range of antigens the immune system has to combat, the variable portions are synthesized under the instructions of many encoding genes whose products are assembled to make the final antibody. The antibody produced by a single B cell clone is called a monoclonal antibody; monoclonal antibodies are synthesized in vivo and in vitro for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Primary immune responses induce memory for the initiating antigen which persists in selected lymphocytes. Further challenge with the same antigen stimulates an accelerated, more vigorous secondary response by both T and B lymphocytes. Priming the immune system in this manner forms the physiological basis for immunization programmes.
Populations of lymphocytes with different functions and other cells engaged in immune responses carry distinctive protein markers. By convention these are classified and enumerated by their 'CD' markers, using monoclonal antibodies specific for each marker.
Immune responses are influenced by cytokines which function as hormones acting over a short range to accelerate the activation and proliferation of other cell populations contributing to the immune response. Specific immune responses collaborate with non-specific defense mechanisms. These include the complement system, a protein cascade reaction designed to eliminate antigens neutralized by antibodies and to recruit cell populations which kill microorganisms.
Immunization is the introduction of antigens into a body (by injection, orally or via a nasal spray) to provoke immunity usually against infectious diseases such as whooping-cough, measles and poliomyelitis.
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